The history of geology began in antiquity with Xenophanes and Herodotus noting fossilized fish and shells on mountains as early as 540 BC. Aristotle later observed the slow rate of geological change, while Theophrastus's work "On Stones" provided early mineral descriptions and classifications, followed by Pliny the Elder who correctly identified amber as fossilized resin and laid the basis for crystallography.
During the Middle Ages, Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni hypothesized the Indian subcontinent was once a sea, and Ibn Sina's "Kitab al-Shifa" detailed mountain formation and mineral origins. Concurrently, Chinese polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) formulated theories on geomorphology from observations of erosion and marine fossils far inland, also proposing gradual climate change based on ancient petrified bamboos. By the 17th century, geology began to establish itself as a distinct natural science, building upon these diverse ancient and medieval contributions.