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Eugene Wigner's influential 1960 article, "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences," explores the astonishing and often inexplicable power of mathematical concepts to accurately describe and predict natural phenomena. Wigner observes that theoretical physics' mathematical structures frequently guide further scientific advances and empirical predictions, often far beyond their original context—a concept Galileo noted centuries earlier. He cites Isaac Newton's law of gravitation as a prime example, which, developed from observations of falling bodies, proved incredibly accurate for predicting planetary motion.

Further illustrations include Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, and Wolfgang Pauli's work in quantum mechanics, where abstract matrix calculations remarkably predicted the behavior of atoms like hydrogen and helium with high precision. Wigner also points to quantum electrodynamics, where purely mathematical theories, such as the Lamb shift, align precisely with experimental data. Even James Clerk Maxwell's mid-19th-century equations for electricity and magnetism surprisingly predicted the existence of radio waves, highlighting the profound and "unreasonable effectiveness" of mathematics in uncovering nature's secrets.