A "conquest dynasty" in Chinese history refers to a ruling house established by non-Han ethnicities that controlled parts or all of China proper, often without fully assimilating into Han culture. Karl August Wittfogel coined this term in 1949, identifying the Liao (916–1125), Jin (1115–1234), Yuan (1271–1368), and Qing (1644–1912) as key examples. Wittfogel controversially argued these were not "truly Chinese" dynasties, a view that sparked debate among historians and led to alternative interpretations regarding cultural assimilation.
Notably, the concept of "Zhongguo" (China) evolved significantly under these rulers. While Han dynasties typically used "Zhongguo" for Han areas, conquest dynasties like the Jurchen-led Jin and the Mongol-led Yuan used it to refer to their entire, multi-ethnic states. The Qing further solidified this expansive definition, calling all subjects "Chinese" and equating "Zhongguo" with the entire Qing Empire, a legacy that profoundly shaped modern Chinese identity.